Domestic violence: A brief critical analysis of impact and interventions

house servantated vehe mence A brief critical analysis of trespass and interventionsDOMESTIC VIOLENCEA BRIEF particular ANALYSIS OF IMPACT AND INTERVENTIONSBUILT ON A DEFINITIONAL, HISTORICAL, AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONAnd yet I fear you, for youre fatal thenWhen your eyes roll so. wherefore I should fear I know non,Since guiltiness I know not, but yet I feel I fear.IntroductionThe introductory credit entry by Desdemona expresses her fear of Othellos rage (Shakespe ar, 1604, cited in Meyersfeld, 2003) at the same time eloquently conveying the terror implicit in national craze and demonstrating that interior(prenominal) effect is not a new phenomenon. Neither is interior(prenominal) abandon a r atomic number 18 occurrence. According to the British government, house servant violence affects millions of lives. The sideline statistics atomic number 18 quoted from the official government website (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 2005)one in quad women an d one in six men impart be victims of national violence in their lifetime with women at greater risk of repeat victimisation and serious injury89 percent of those suffering four or more(prenominal) incidents are womenone incident of interior(prenominal) violence is reported to the law of nature every minuteon average, two women a week are killed by a current or former young-begetting(prenominal) partner and municipal violence accounts for 16 percent of all gaga crime.This essay will demonst respect that the issue of internal violence is a complex one, much more complex than the term itself might convey. Indeed, internal violence is complex in terms of its very definition, complex in terms of its theoretical ex planations, complex in terms of gender relevancy, complex in terms of its effects, and complex in terms of interventions to pr up to nowt and deal with its occurrence. The essay begins with a presentation and critique of various definitions for internal violence, an exploration of the historical evolution of interior(prenominal)ated violence as a societal concern, and a discussion and critique of theoretical explanations for domestic violence including consideration of the relevance of gender. This foundation will be used as a basis for exploring the impact of domestic violence upon its direct and indirect victims and the value and efficacy of the current resources, initiatives, and underpin networks used in combating domestic violence and assisting its victims. Finally, concluding remarks will be presented.A Critique on Definitions of Domestic military groupFinding a generally-accepted definition for domestic violence proved to be an elusive endeavor. This whitethorn be because there is no consensus definition of the term (Laurence and Spalter-Roth, 1996 Contemporary Womens Issues Database, May 1996 Contemporary Womens Issues Database, July 1996). Each writer seems to define the term to set(p) his or her topic or agenda. For instance, Che z (1994, cited in Gibson-Howell, 1996), in focusing on female victims of domestic violence, defines the term as the repeated subjection of a adult female to forceful physical, tender, and psychogenic behavior to coerce her without regard to her rights. Some definitions are basic and general a pattern of regularly occurring twist and violence, or the holy terror of violence, in an intimate (though not necessarily cohabitating) relationship (Gibson-Howell, 1996, citing Loring and Smith, 1994). Other definitions are comprehensive and specific (Manor, 1996 Neufield, 1996 Asian Pages, 1998 Josiah, 1998 Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 1999 Danis, 2003 Verkaik, 2003). The more comprehensive definitions, although phrased differently, typically possess the quest common elementsa pattern of abusive behavior (as contrasted to a single event)the abusive behavior involves control, coercion, and/or powerthe abusive behavior may be physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, and/or financial an dthe victim of the abusive behavior is a cohabitating or non-cohabitating intimate partner or spouse.The British government has adopted one of the more expansive descriptions of domestic violence, one that includes all of the foregoing elements Any incident of threatening behaviour, violence or abuse (psychological, physical, sexual, financial or emotional) between adults who are or have been intimate partners or family members, regardless of gender or sexuality. Beyond the basic definition, the government furnishes further description of domestic violence as a pattern of abusive and controlling behaviour by which the abuser attempts to gain power over the victim. The government contends that domestic violence crosses age, gender, racial, sexuality, wealth, and geographical lines. (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 2005) Interestingly, the definition offered by the government expands the description to include other family members in addition to intimate partners.H istorical Evolution of the Recognition of Domestic Violence as a Societal ConcernThe issue of domestic violence, particularly violence against female spouses, was a topic of societal concern dating from the commencement ceremony espousals law instituted by Romulus in 75 B.C. But the concern was not in preventing domestic violence to the contrary the concern was in support of wife beatinglegally and institutionallya condition that existed through the early twentieth century. (Danis, 2003, citing Dobash and Dobash, 1979). English common law, until the late nineteenth century, structured marriage to add a husband superiority over his wife in nigh aspects of the relationship. This sanctioned superiority gave the husband the right to command his wifes obedience, and subject her to corporal punishment or chastisement if she defied his authority. (Tuerkheimer, 2004, citing Siegel, 1996) The beginning of the twentieth century witnessed the dismantling of laws specifically condoning cont rol and violence however, the laws were not replaced by codes that protect victims from abuse. Instead, marital privacy became the standard. Essentially, abuse was considered to be a family problem, not one in which society had an interest. (Turekheimer, 2004)Not until the feminist movement of the late 1960s and seventies was usual interest in domestic violence piqued (Danis, 2003, citing Schechter, 1982). With little public or individual(a) funding, feminist activists set up shelters for female victims of domestic violence. They excessively pressed for laws to punish offenders and promoted training of social workers and other professions to recognize domestic violence and treat its victims. (Contemporary Womens Issues Database, May 1996). From these humble beginnings, over the last xxx-plus years, public awareness has been enhanced dramatically, increasing amounts of public and private funding have been allocated for shelters, domestic violence laws have been strengthened, and social workers and other professionals (e.g. school personnel, healthcare professionals, natural law officers) have been trained to recognize signs of, and provide treatment to those affected by, domestic violence.Today, in the early years of the new millennium, the way in which society views domestic violence is continuing to evolve. Physical abuse of wives was the initial focus of intervention initiatives. Drawing on research presented preliminary, sexual, emotional, psychological, and financial abuse have been added to physical abuse as types of domestic violence. And, many definitions of victims of domestic violence now include, in addition to wives, husbands and domestic partners of the same or different sex. Increasingly, too, children in the domestic administration are being included as victims of domestic violence.Theoretical Explanations for Domestic Violence and the Relevance of GenderJust as there is a overlook of consensus on a single definition for domestic violenc e, there is no single recognized causal possibleness for domestic violence. In the absence of a single theory, at least four theories are used to explain why domestic violence occurs social exchange/deterrence, social learning, feminist, and the ecological good example. (Danis, 2003) These theories, with their relevance to domestic violence, will be presented and critiqued in this section. A discussion of the relevance of gender in domestic violence will close out the section. downstairs the social exchange theory, human interaction is driven by pursuing rewards and avoiding punishments and costs. (Danis, 2003, citing Blau, 1964). Gelles and Cornell (1985, 1990, cited in Danis, 2003) contend that domestic violence occurs when costs do not surmount rewards. Costs in this context include the potential for defensive physical action by the victim, potential of being arrested and imprisoned, loss of personal status, and dissolution of the domestic governing body.The social learning t heory suggests that people learn to be violent by being immediately rewarded or punished after they commit violent behavior, through what is called reinforcement, and by watching the experiences of others, called modeling (Danis, 2003, citing Bandura, 1973). According to some experts, there is a correlation between people who witness abusive behavior in their earlier lives and those who commit domestic violence later. (Danis, 2003, citing OLeary, 1987).According to feminist theory, domestic violence emanates from a patriarchal school system which assigns men the accountability for controlling and managing female partners (Danis, 2003, citing Dobash and Dobash, 1979 Yllo, 1993). Under this theory, domestic violence is attributed to a flaw in societal structure rather than to any specific individual male pathology.Finally, the ecological framework theory, in contending that no single theory can be used in explaining or predicting domestic violence, proposes risk factors for domestic violence and interventions to address it at three levelsthe micro level (e.g. batterer programs), the meso level (e.g. police and the philanders), and the macro level (e.g. a coordinated community approach). (Danis, 2003, citing Crowell and Burgess, 1996 Chalk and King, 1998).Each of these four theories offers valuable insight into domestic violence. For instance, the social exchange theory offers a basis for law enforcement and prosecution of offenders the social learning theory helps to explain why children who witness abuse sometimes grow up to be abusers themselves thereby providing rationale for corrective interventions to unlearn abusive behavior and the feminist theory supports interventions targeted at helping batterers to reform and helping to empower victims. But none of these theories seems to provide a comprehensive foundation on which a comprehensive approach for relations with the many causal and outcome dimensions of domestic violence can be built. The more integrat ed ecological framework theory, however, seems to furnish the desireed basis for much(prenominal) a comprehensive approach.Now attention will turn to the topic of the relevance of gender in domestic violence. Historically, as mentioned earlier, wives were considered to be the only victims of domestic violence. Today, husbands as well as same- or different-sex non-married partners are considered to be victims as well (Cruz, 2003). Although the statistics vary significantly (Leo, 1994), some indicating that the same number of men as women are victims of domestic violence (Leo, 1994 Simerman, 2002), most experts agree than women are most often the victims and, when they are victimized, the damage is usually more serious. The indication that women are most often victims has now gained official recognition. The British government contends that, although domestic violence is not restricted to a specific gender, it consists mainly of violence by men against women. (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 2005)The Potential Impact of Domestic Violence on Females, Mothers, and barbarianrenAccording to the Contemporary Womens Issues Database (January 1996), the most common victims (of domestic violence) are women and children. With the cite that domestic violence affects men as well as women, the focus of the discussion in this section will be on the potential impact of domestic violence on females, generally, and on females in their role as mothers as well as on their children.Domestic violence against women can terminus in serious physical injuries, psychological impairment, and mental strain (Wha-soon, 1994). According to Wha-soon, physical injuries include severe headaches, bruises, bone fractures, loss of eyesight, nervous paralysis, insomnia and indigestion, and psychological trauma can include anxiety, a sense of powerlessness, and a loss of self-respect and self-confidence. Psychological effects can lead to suicide in some cases. Winkvist (2001 ) echoes these psychological effects and adds that battered women are also more likely to experience sexual and reproductive health disorders. Effects are not restricted to those that are physical and psychological in nature, however. Women can be financially impacted as well. Brown and Kenneym (1996) contend that women, in an effort to flee their attackers, may give up financial security and their homes in favor of safety.Mothers may experience additional negative effects from domestic violence. Starr (2001) contends that domestic violence against mothers is associated with termsful implications for mental health and parenting, as well as for the offspring. According to Starr, mothers who are in an environment of domestic violence suffer worse outcomes for themselves and for their children. Isaac (1997) suggests that abuse of mothers and children are linked, stating that from thirty to almost sixty percent of mothers reported for child abuse were themselves abused.Hewitt (2002) cl aims that ninety percent of occurrences of domestic violence are witnessed either directly or indirectly by children. Children can be affected in at least two ways by domestic violence. According to the British government, they can be traumatized by violence they witness against others in the relationship even when they are not the specific targets of the violence (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 2005). According to Hewitt (2002), children suffer humbled self-esteem, isolation, trauma, and homelessness that they may not manifest until later in life. They may also suffer from maladies such as worry, sadness, focus and concentration difficulties, forgetfulness, headaches and stomachaches, lying, and poor impulse control, accord to Salisbury and Wichmann (2004).Importantly, there is also a strong correlation between domestic violence and child abuse, a point which reinforces Isaacs position mentioned earlier (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 20 05). Edleson (1999, cited in Spath, 2003) takes the same position in stating that numerous research studies over the last several decades have reported a inter-group communication between domestic violence and child maltreatment within families. And, finally, as mentioned earlier, the social learning theory would suggest that children who witness violence learn that violence is an acceptable way to settle disputes. Supporting this, Wha-soon (1994) writes that the learning of violence causes a cycle of violence.An Assessment of the Value and Efficacy of Domestic Violence InterventionsMethods for dealing with domestic violence generally fall into three categories prevention, security, and justice (M2 Presswire, 1998). As the terms imply, prevention attempts to avert incidences of domestic violence through methods such as fosterage and counseling protection involves attempts to prevent further injury through methods such as removing victims from the situation and ordering offenders to stay away from their victims and justice involves retribution against domestic violence offenders.The value and efficacy of prevention, protection, and justice methods used in dealing with domestic violence are difficult to measure. A reason for this was mentioned earlier the privation of a consensus definition for domestic violence itself. (Contemporary Womens Issues Database, May 1996). Nevertheless, there has been some attempt at measuring performance anecdotally. According to the Contemporary Womens Issues Database (April 1993) Currently, the two most common forms of social intervention are mechanisms that help her to leave (such as emergency shelters) and having him arrested(but) neither of these interventions is ideal. And, police and judicial interventions do not seem to fair much better as illustrated by the case of Samuel Gutierrez who killed his domestic partner, Kelly Gonzalez, in Chicago, Illinois in the United States after multiple beatings, arrests, and various cou rt interventions (Hanna, 1998).That domestic violence still exists as such a serious social problem is probably the best evidence that current methods for preventing it, protecting its victims, and compulsive justice on offenders are not working especially well. Perhaps the future will be brighter. Newer perspectives, such as that offered by the ecological framework theory, offer some hope. It seems that taking a comprehensive, integrated approach could potentially be substantially more effective as the various public and private components work together in a cooperative, synergistic arrangement with one goalthe welfare of the potential or actual victim. One expert even suggests that this combined public-private approach could be enhanced further by adding a third componentthe family (nuclear family, extended family, intimate family, close relationships)to the formal, integrated support arrangement (Kelly, 2004).ConclusionPublic and private organizations continue to increase their attention to domestic violence. In the United Kindgom, The Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004 furnishes greater authority to police and the courts in dealing with cases of domestic violence and in providing protection to victims. 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